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| 6100184 |
ABS ADAPTER, TRAP X SPGT, 1 1/2″, NIBCO 5804-2 |
| 6100186 |
ABS ADAPTER, TRAP, 2″ MALE |
| 6001060 |
ABS CEMENT, BLACK. 4 OZ. |
| 6001062 |
ABS CEMENT, OATEY 30892, 16 OZ |
| 6106400 |
ABS CLEANOUT, HUB 2″ |
| 6101686 |
ABS COUPLER, 1 1/2″ |
| 6103840 |
ABS ELBOW, 90 DEG. 2″ |
| 6103831 |
ABS ELBOW, 45 DEG. 1 1/2″ |
| 6103841 |
ABS ELBOW, 45 DEG. 2″ |
| 6103830 |
ABS ELBOW, 90 DEG. 1 1/2″ |
| 6103832 |
ABS ELBOW, STREET, 45 DEG. 1 1/2″ |
| 6103842 |
ABS ELBOW, STREET, 45 DEG. 2″ |
| 6109147 |
ABS TEE, SANITARY 2″ |
| 6109146 |
ABS TEE, SANITARY, 1 1/2″ |
| 6500127 |
ABS TRAP, P-TRAP, GLUE 2 |
| 6100185 |
ABS ADAPTER. 1 1/2″ ABS TRAP X HUB, NIBCO 5801-7-1 1/2 |
| 6540020 |
ADAPTER, 3/4MPT X 1/2FPT X MALE HOSE. |
| 6100140 |
ADAPTER, PVC 1 1/2 FEMALE |
| 6100050 |
ADAPTER, PVC 1 1/2 MALE |
| 6100130 |
ADAPTER, PVC 1 1/4 FEMALE |
| 6100120 |
ADAPTER, PVC 1″ FEMALE |
| 6100030 |
ADAPTER, PVC 1″ MALE |
| 6100100 |
ADAPTER, PVC 1/2 FEMALE |
| 6100010 |
ADAPTER, PVC 1/2 MALE |
| 6100040 |
ADAPTER, PVC 1-1/4″ MALE |
| 6100060 |
ADAPTER, PVC 2 MALE |
| 6100150 |
ADAPTER, PVC 2″ FEMALE |
| 6100080 |
ADAPTER, PVC 3″ MALE |
| 6100110 |
ADAPTER, PVC 3/4 FEMALE |
| 6100020 |
ADAPTER, PVC 3/4 MALE |
| 6100090 |
ADAPTER, PVC 4″ MALE |
| 6100170 |
ADAPTER, PVC FEMALE, 3 |
| 6500004 |
ARM, SHOWER. 8″ P1186 |
| 6500297 |
BALLCOCK FLUIDMASTER. #400A |
| 6500296 |
BALLCOCK, TOILET TANK TYPE MANSFIELD #10 10″ |
| 6500294 |
BALLCOCK, TOILET TANK, #12 11-1/2 MANSFIELD |
| 6530570 |
BALLS, BLACK & BLUE, TOILET TANK FLOAT |
| 6531000 |
BOLT, BRASS CLOSET HOLD DOWN |
| 6201170 |
BRASS, CAP, FLARE. 1/4″ |
| 6201175 |
BRASS, CAP, FLARE. 3/8″ |
| 6201225 |
BRASS, CONN, 1/4 M.F.T X 1/4 M.I.P |
| 6201100 |
BRASS, CONN. COMP. X MALE PIPE 1/2″ X 1/2″ #68 |
| 6201095 |
BRASS, CONN. COMP. X MALE PIPE 1/2″ X 3/8″ #68 |
| 6201070 |
BRASS, CONN. COMP. X MALE PIPE 1/4″ X 1/8″ #68 |
| 6201080 |
BRASS, CONN. COMP. X MALE PIPE 3/8″ X 1/4″ #68 |
| 6201085 |
BRASS, CONN. COMP. X MALE PIPE 3/8″ X 3/8″ # 68 |
| 6201090 |
BRASS, CONN. COMP. X MALE PIPE 3/8″X1/2″ #68 |
| 6201105 |
BRASS, CONN. COMP. X MALE PIPE 5/8″ X 1/2″ #68 |
| 6201280 |
BRASS, CONN. FEMALE, FLARE. 1/2X1/2″ |
| 6201270 |
BRASS, CONN. FEMALE, FLARE. 3/8X1/2″ |
| 6201260 |
BRASS, CONN. FEMALE, FLARE. 3/8X1/4″ |
| 6201265 |
BRASS, CONN. FEMALE, FLARE. 3/8X3/8″ |
| 6201220 |
BRASS, CONN. MALE, FLARE. 1/4X1/8″ |
| 6201240 |
BRASS, CONN. MALE, FLARE. 3/8X1/2″ |
| 6201230 |
BRASS, CONN. MALE, FLARE. 3/8X1/4″ |
| 6201235 |
BRASS, CONN. MALE, FLARE. 3/8X3/8″ |
| 6201075 |
BRASS, CONNECTOR. TUBE X MALE PIPE 1/4″ #68 |
| 6140027 |
BRASS, COUPLING, TUBE X FEMALE PIPE 1/4″X1/4″ #66 |
| 6201295 |
BRASS, ELBOW, MALE, FLARE. 3/8X1/2″ |
| 6201285 |
BRASS, ELBOW, MALE, FLARE. 3/8X1/4″ |
| 6201290 |
BRASS, ELBOW, MALE, FLARE. 3/8X3/8″ |
| 6201115 |
BRASS, ELBOW, TUBE X MALE PIPE 3/8″ X 1/4″ #69 |
| 6201117 |
BRASS, ELBOW, TUBE X MALE PIPE 3/8″ X 3/8″ #69 |
| 6201110 |
BRASS, ELBOW, TUBE X MALE PIPE1/4″ X 1/8″ #69 |
| 6201130 |
BRASS, ELBOW, TUBE X TUBE 1/2″ #65 |
| 6201125 |
BRASS, ELBOW, TUBE X TUBE 3/8″ #65 |
| 6201160 |
BRASS, NUT, FLARE. 1/2″ L41E |
| 6201155 |
BRASS, NUT, FLARE. 3/8″ |
| 6201035 |
BRASS, NUTS, COMPRESSION. 1/2″ #61 |
| 6201025 |
BRASS, NUTS, COMPRESSION. 1/4″ #61 |
| 6201030 |
BRASS, NUTS, COMPRESSION. 3/8″ #61 |
| 6201150 |
BRASS, NUTS, FLARE. 1/4″ |
| 6201015 |
BRASS, SLEEVE, COMPRESSION. 1/2″ #60 |
| 6201000 |
BRASS, SLEEVE, COMPRESSION. 1/4″ #60 |
| 6201010 |
BRASS, SLEEVE, COMPRESSION. 3/8″ #60 |
| 6201140 |
BRASS, TEES, O.D. TUBE, 3/8″ #64 |
| 6201250 |
BRASS, UNION, FLARE X M.I.P 1/2″ |
| 6201210 |
BRASS, UNION, FLARE. 1/2″ |
| 6201200 |
BRASS, UNION, FLARE. 1/4″ |
| 6201205 |
BRASS, UNION, FLARE. 3/8″ |
| 6201060 |
BRASS, UNIONS, COMPRESSION. 1/2″ 62F |
| 6201045 |
BRASS, UNIONS, COMPRESSION. 1/4″ #62 |
| 6201055 |
BRASS, UNIONS, COMPRESSION. 3/8″ #62 |
| 6201050 |
BRASS, UNIONS, COMPRESSION. 5/16″ #62 |
| 6300627 |
BREAKER, VACUUM RELIEF 1/2″ WATTS 288A |
| 6300628 |
BREAKER, VACUUM RELIEF 3/8″ WATTS 288AC |
| 6500048 |
BREAKER, VACUUM, 3/4 HOFFMAN #62 STEAM/WATER |
| 6401205 |
BUBBLER ASS’Y. ELKAY SAFETY. |
Solar water heating or solar hot water is water heated by the use of solar energy. Solar heating systems are generally composed of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage. The system may use electricity for pumping the fluid, and have a reservoir or tank for heat storage and subsequent use. The systems may be used to heat water for a wide variety of uses, including home, business and industrial uses. Heating swimming pools, underfloor heating or energy input for space heating or cooling are more specific examples.
In many climates, a solar hot water system can provide up to 85% of domestic hot water energy.[1] This can include domestic non-electric concentrating solar thermal systems. In many northern European countries, combined hot water and space heating systems (solar combisystems) are used to provide 15 to 25% of home heating energy.
Residential solar thermal installations can be subdivided into two kinds of systems: passive (sometimes called “compact”) and active (sometimes called “pumped”) systems. Both typically include an auxiliary energy source (electric heating element or connection to a gas or fuel oil central heating system) that is activated when the water in the tank falls below a minimum temperature setting such as 50°C. Hence, hot water is always available. The combination of solar water heating and using the back-up heat from a wood stove chimney to heat water[2] can enable a hot water system to work all year round in cooler climates, without the supplemental heat requirement of a solar water heating system being met with fossil fuels or electricity.
[edit] History
Flat-plate collectors for solar water heating were popular in Florida and Southern California in the 1920s. Levi Yissar built the first prototype Israeli solar water heater and in 1953 he started NerYah Company, Israel’s first commercial manufacturer of solar water heaters.[3][4] Despite the abundance of sunlight in Israel, solar water heaters were used by only 20% of the population by 1967. Following the energy crisis in the 1970s, in 1980 the Israeli Knesset passed a law requiring the installation of solar water heaters in all new homes (except high towers with insufficient roof area). As a result, Israel is now the world leader in the use of solar energy per capita with 85% of the households today using solar thermal systems (3% of the primary national energy consumption).[5]
During this time, there was some resurgence of interest in solar heating in North America. Technical innovation has improved performance, life expectancy and ease of use of these systems. Installation of solar water heating has become the norm in countries with an abundance of solar radiation, like Cyprus, Israel[6] and Greece, as well as in Japan and Austria, where there is less.
In 2005, Spain became the first country in the world to require the installation of photovoltaic electricity generation in new buildings, and the second (after Israel) to require the installation of solar water heating systems in 2006.[7] Australia adopted the mandatory regulation for solar thermal for new construction in 2006 as well.
Solar water heating systems have become popular in China, where basic models start at around 1,500 yuan (US$190), much cheaper than in Western countries (around 80% cheaper for a given size of collector). It is said that at least 30 million Chinese households now have one, and that the popularity is due to the efficient evacuated tubes which allow the heaters to function even under gray skies and at temperatures well below freezing.[8]
Hot water heated by the sun can be used to:
- Heat water (e.g. for sanitary purposes such as showering, washing, …)
- Generate electricity[citation needed]
Designs suitable for hot climates can be much simpler and cheaper, and can be considered an appropriate technology for these places. In the southern regions of Africa like Zimbabwe, solar water heaters have been gaining popularity, thanks to the Austrian-[9] and other EU-funded projects that are promoting more environmentally friendly water heating solutions.
The global solar thermal market is dominated by China, Europe, Japan and India.
[edit] Israel
Israel‘s use of solar water heaters is estimated to save the country two million barrels of oil a year, and the country has the highest per capita use in the world.[10] In the 1950s there was a fuel shortage in the new Israeli state, and the government forbade heating water between 10 p.m. and 6 p.m. As the situation worsened, engineer Levi Yissar proposed that instead of building more electrical generators, homes should switch to solar water heaters. He built a prototype in his home, and in 1953 he started NerYah Company, Israel’s first commercial manufacturer of solar water heaters.[4] By 1967 around one in twenty households heated their water with the sun and 50,000 solar heaters had been sold.[4] However, cheap oil from Iran and from oil fields captured in the Six Day War made Israeli electricity cheaper and the demand for solar heaters dropped.[11] With the 1970s oil crisis, Harry Zvi Tabor, the father of Israel’s solar industry, developed the prototype solar water heater that is now used in over 30%-40% of Israeli homes.[12]
In 1980, the Israeli Knesset passed a law requiring the installation of solar water heaters in all new homes (except high towers with insufficient roof area). As a result, Israel is now the world leader in the use of solar energy per capita (3% of the primary national energy consumption).[13]
As of the early 1990s, all new residential buildings were required by the government to install solar water-heating systems, and Israel’s National Infrastructure Ministry estimates solar panels for water-heating already satisfy 4% of the country’s total energy demand.[12] Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar water heating systems with over 30%-40% of homes using them.[14][15]
[edit] Technique
In order to heat water using solar energy, a collector is fastened to the roof of a building, or on a wall facing the sun. In some cases, the collector may be free-standing. The working fluid is either pumped (active system) or driven by natural convection (passive system) through it.
The collector could be made of a simple glass topped insulated box with a flat solar absorber made of sheet metal attached to copper pipes and painted black, or a set of metal tubes surrounded by an evacuated (near vacuum) glass cylinder. In some cases, a parabolic mirror is used to concentrate sunlight on the tube.
A simple water heating system pumps cold water out to a collector to be heated, the heated water flows back to a collection tank. This type of collector can provide enough hot water for an entire family.
Heat is stored in a hot water tank. The volume of this tank needs to be larger with solar heating systems in order to allow for bad weather, and because the optimum final temperature for the absorber is lower than a typical immersion or combustion heater.
The working fluid for the absorber may be the hot water from the tank, but more commonly (at least in active systems) is a separate loop of fluid containing anti-freeze and a corrosion inhibitor which delivers heat to the tank through a heat exchanger (commonly a coil of copper tubing within the tank). Another lower-maintenance concept is the ‘drain-back’: no anti-freeze is required; instead all the piping is sloped to cause water to drain back to the tank. The tank is not pressurized and is open to atmospheric pressure. As soon as the pump shuts off, flow reverses and the pipes are empty before freezing could occur.
When a solar water heating and hot-water central heating system are used in conjunction, solar heat will either be concentrated in a pre-heating tank that feeds into the tank heated by the central heating, or the solar heat exchanger will replace the lower heating element and the upper element will remain in place to provide for any heating that solar cannot provide. However, the primary need for central heating is at night and in winter when solar gain is lower. Therefore, solar water heating for washing and bathing is often a better application than central heating because supply and demand are better matched.
The water from the collector can reach very high temperatures in good sunshine, or if the pump fails. Designs should allow for relief of pressure and excess heat through a heat dump.
[edit] Economics, energy, environment, and system costs
The typical 50 gallon electric water heater uses 11.1 barrels of oil a year, which translates into the same amount oil used by a typical 4 door sedan driven by the average consumer. Electric utility companies often provide electricity by burning and releasing energy from fuels such as oil, coal and nuclear energy. An electrical home hot water heater sits on an electrical grid and may be driving the use of unclean fuels on the other end of the grid. Solar water heating systems can significantly reduce such electricity consumption.
In sunny, warm locations, where freeze protection is not necessary, a batch type solar water heater can be extremely cost effective. In higher latitudes, there are often additional design requirements for cold weather, which add to system complexity. This has the effect of increasing the initial cost (but not the life-cycle cost) of a solar water heating system, to a level much higher than a comparable hot water heater of the conventional type. When calculating the total cost to own and operate, a proper analysis will consider that solar energy is free, thus greatly reducing the operating costs, whereas other energy sources, such as gas and electricity, can be quite expensive over time. Thus, when the initial costs of a solar system are properly financed and compared with energy costs, then in many cases the total monthly cost of solar heat can be less than other more conventional types of hot water heaters (and also in conjunction with an existing hot water heater). At higher latitudes, solar heaters may be less effective due to lower solar energy, possibly requiring dual-heating systems. In addition, federal and local incentives can be significant.
As an example, a 56 ft.2 solar water heater can cost US $7,500,[citation needed] but that initial cost is reduced to just $3,300 in the US State of Oregon due to federal and state incentives. The system will save approximately US $230 per year, with a payback of 14 years. Lower payback periods are possible based on maximizing sun exposure.[16] As energy prices rise, payback periods decrease. In cooler locations, solar heating used to be less efficient. Usable amounts of domestic hot water were only available in the summer months, on cloudless days, between April and October. During the winter and on cloudy days, the output was poor. Independent surveys have shown that modern systems do not suffer these limitations.[17] There are cases of households in cool climates getting all of their domestic hot water year round from solar alone.[18] Systems have been shown to efficiently work as far north as Whitehorse, Yukon (latitude of 60 B 43′ N ).[19]
The installation costs in the UK used to be prohibitive, on average about £9,000. This is reduced in more recent years to £3,000, with payback period reduced, with the rise in the gas price, to 12 years.[20] As energy prices rise, payback periods shorten accordingly.
According to ANRE (a Flemish energy agency, subsidised by the Flemish or Belgian government,[21] a complete, commercial (active) solar water heating system composed of a solar collector (3-4 m²; this is large enough for 4 people), pipes and tank (again large enough for 4 people) costs around 4000 euro. The installation by a recognised worker costs another 800 euro.[22] Electrabel‘s home magazine Eandismagazine stated in 2008 that a complete system (including 4m2 of solar collectors and a supply barrel of 200-240 liters) to cost 4500 euro. [23] The system would then pay back itself in 11 years , when the returns are weighed off against a regular electric boiler. Calculation was as follows: a saving of 1875 kWh (which is 50% of the energy requirements in domestic hot water production) x 0.10 euro/kWh = 187, 5 euros. This multiplied by 11.6 years made 2175 euros (or the cost of the system with deducted regional tax benefits).
Solar leasing is now available in Spain for solar water heating systems from Pretasol[24] with a typical system costing around 59 euros and rising to 99 euros per month for a system that would provide sufficient hot water for a typical family home of six persons. The payback period would be five years.
In Australia, the cost for an average solar water heating system fully installed is between $1,800 and $2,800. This is after tax rebates (there is a federal rebate,[25] some state rebates and Renewable Energy Certificates[26]). According to the Department of Environment and Water Resources,[27] the yearly electricity savings are between $300 and $700. This brings the payback period to under 2 years in the best case and under 10 years in the worst case. Easy Being Green has a program available where consumers can acquire a system for free (with government rebates) excluding the cost of installation.
There are two main categories of solar water heating systems, active systems which require a pump and passive systems which rely on convection or heatpipes. In addition, there are a number of other system characteristics that distinguish different designs:
- The type of collector used (see below)
- The location of the collector – roof mount, ground mount, wall mount[28]
- The location of the storage tank in relation to the collector
- The method of heat transfer – open-loop or closed-loop (via heat exchanger)
- Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors can be designed to produce both hot water and electricity.
